Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. aoe a « geet : ee ae 2 a a Se Gen aes at bys eh - ey ay Te. oe eeu WY _ = 4 : . 7 _ sw y 7 * : Fr 7 i a eee f ‘ q 7 _ a > Q ee a) Se + ae oe J te ‘ a 7 ’ en ee gee ae?) ; oa oo)” i a aaa : * > Ss ory a fie: = .% : i. oe | an era: >a ee rh aero Ff ae, Ve : ‘jin, a. oe 7 | : eee 7 os «4,8 io SS een 7 ma F 7 : © 4 ~ 5 ee ¢ , 2oP fee 9"). Seed k ae a” ; 4 29 a) ae a aE. 7 7 fo ie Cpe we - 7 7 wit : 7 aan) a be ar Cla Di 1 = : a =, wae WT), Sheahan oY A ore, BEN ; JNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATION NO. 650 | LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY ”* By E. C. HicBre Senior Agronomist Technical Collaboration Branch Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations Washington, D. C. May 1948 LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION AND SOURCES OF SUPPLY By E. C. HicgBEE Senior Agronomist Technical Collaboration Branch Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations Sy Washington, D. C. May 1948 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25. D. C. - Price 15 cents CONTENTS Page Introduction... 2-22. 262) «2 552 1 WonchoOCarpUsS= se = = == ee 5 Botanyasss—22 == ‘ee eee ee eee eee Be ee A ee ee ne 5 Sources of Commercial: Suppl ies 2 mee eee eee ee 8 Cultivation practices:_-_ 2.32.24 S228 ee ee 9 Field: preparation... 22. 2.222525 2 ee ee ee “Ss Propagating material and fieldspacing == ae. se eee 10 Interplanting= 22-2 52426552 ee eee 10 Weeding 2.2... 2 Sen bse ee ee 11 Harvest and preparation for market ee ee 12 Selection of superior-quality strains2 > © 5S a 14 Dérriss 2. 2. ose 5 et eee ee ea 16 Various cultural practices. S25 yeaa a meee ee ee 16 Cultivation in’ Puerto Rico... 2 22. 3 20 eee 19 Nursery 222. 2 bee ee ee 19 Transplanting... 2222066 22 2 ae 19 Weeding and ‘trellisings @ = 20) 80 93 20 Mulehing 5-2. & Ses a 8 Se 26 Harvest methods and yields ‘of roots) an a Py Desion of a mechanical harvester] 22225 ae Se 22 Selectionof Superior varieties. =o. = 2 2a ea 23 Poy re ta rt a 24 Botany oc. 2oe 35 oe ee oe 27 Cultural practices). 2202 45 22 3 oe ee A 27 Nurseries_o.2 (32.05.6055 Se 32 22 eS I ae 28 Field: planting 12% «200 222 Ss a 29 Harvests 2. £6 2. 22 oe 30 Production in the Western Hemispheres] 522s ee ee 317 Brazil ee ye as ag a 31 Argentina. 2 222020225 5. oe 32 Chiles os ge et a a a Eee 32 Pere ooo eat ek Roe oe i ae a ne 33 Bieuador. 2. 6. fd 2 ee Se a 34 Central Ameri¢a. Waite, Davip G., MULCHING TROPICAL PLANTS; and Wuite, Davin G., PaGan, CALEB, and ManGueLt Jos& C., THE EFFECTS OF MULCHING DERRIS ELLIPTICA. [Manuscripts accepted for publication in Journal of Tropical Agricul- ture (Trinidad).] 783559°—48 4 22 MISC. PUBLICATION 650, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE If a tractor is used, a 16-inch-deep furrow can be turned and the roots removed by hand as the clods are forked over by harvesters stationed at intervals along the field. If oxen are used, two 8-inch furrows must be plowed, one below the other, so as to break open the eround to a depth of 16 inches for the harvesters. The roots need only to be separated from clods of earth and any attached pieces of vine before they may be dried and packed in bales for shipment. Derris roots, being much smaller in diameter than those of loncho- carpus, dry out in a week or two if left outside in clear weather or within 3 weeks if dried under well-ventilated shelters. In Puerto Rico experimental plots, 25 to 27 months old, yielded from 885 to 1,738 pounds of air-dry roots per acre when the tr ‘ailing system of culture was used and 3,040 pounds when the plants were trellised. DESIGN OF A MECHANICAL HARVESTER Since the expenses of harvesting derris by present hand methods may easily exceed the total of all other production costs when a trailing Figure 14.—Whirlwind terracer being used in derris harvest trials for digging roots after tops were removed with other equipment. Tractor was operated in low gear and terracer in low speed. crop 1s grown on heavy soils under climatic conditions promoting deep rooting, the development of mechanized methods has seemed desirable. Workers at the Estacién Experimental Agricola del Ecuador ° at © Nutt, Grorce B. REPORT ON DERRIS HARVESTING INVESTIGATIONS CON- DUCTED AT PICHILINGUE, ECUADOR. 11 pp., illus. August 1945. [Unpublished manuscript fledjin CB Or sliae seme | | | | . i” LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION 23 Pichilingue, Ecuador, have attempted methods of harvesting derris— root mechanically, with encouraging results. In these initial studies a universal-type tractor mower, equipped with bush guards, canning- pea-type vine lifters, and heavy dividers on both inside and outside shoes, proved to be a practical device for cutting prostrate derris vines prior to removal from the field. For windrowing vines, an un- modified side-delivery rake was not entirely satisfactory, since it clogged when it could not rip aside those vine runners left uncut by the mower. A high-speed vertical screw plow drawn by a heavy-duty tractor (fiz. 14) was found capable of cutting 12- to 13-inch-deep furrows and at the same time was able to throw the embedded derris roots free and cut-clean from soil where they could easily be picked up by hand. SELECTION OF SUPERIOR VARIETIES When derris first became a product of commercial importance, a relationship between species and the rotenone content of their roots was recognized. Further investigations revealed that certain selec- tions within species were superior to others; thus, a considerable num- ber of promising clones were segregated. Others are still being estab- lished in the hope that roots of even better quality can be grown so as to make cultivation of the crop more profitable. In 1936, experiments reported by research workers in the Federated Malay States (4) indicated that the insecticidal value of derris roots depends more upon the genetic qualities of parent plants than upon minor differences in soils and growing conditions. Most pioneer work in selecting superior derris stocks was undertaken in the Federated Malay States and in the Netherlands East Indies. Perhaps the root of highest rotenone content now obtained is from certain clones of the Changi No. 3 variety of D. elliptica. From time to time, strains of derris were introduced by agricultural stations in the Tropics of the Western Hemisphere, but it was not until Walter Bangham of the Goodyear Rubber Plantations Co. brought 13 outstanding selections of Changi No. 3 to Panama, in 1935, that research workers in the American Tropics were provided with the high-quality foundation stocks which may make derris cultivation profitable in that part of the world. These clones, originally obtained from Malayan stocks, were grown first in Sumatra and later on the Goodyear Pathfinder Estate at Kabasalan, Zamboanga, Philippine Islands. From there, propagating material was taken by Bangham to the All-Weather Estate near Ciricito, Panama. At that time it was planned to use derris as a cover crop on tubber plantations that the Goodyear Rubber Plantations Co. was establish- ing at All-Weather. In 1939 Atherton Lee, then director of the Puerto Rico Experiment Station, visited Panama and learned about Bangham’s derris. Arrangements were made to ship propagating material to Puerto Rico in 1940. Living material of 9 of the 13 clones reached Puerto Rico, where subsequent experiments indicated that some of the numbers would produce roots containing as much as 10 percent rotenone (/3). In 1943 the Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations sent the writer to the All-Weather Estate, which had subsequently been purchased On MISC. PUBLICATION 650, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE by the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences, to collect cuttings of the remaining 4 clones. By that time the introduction garden at All-Weather had been abandoned, and the markers which - originaliy identified the separate clo es were illegible, missing, or out of position. It was therefore necessary to harvest individually the 275 plants which were in the introduction garden. The root svstem of each plant was sent to the Estacién Experi- mental Agricola del Ecuador for chemical analysis. Cuttings were also sent there, as well as to the Puerto Rico Experiment Station, the Estacién Experimenta! Agricola de Tingo Maria in Peru, the Servicio — Técnico Agricola de Nicaragua, the Inter-American Institute of Agri- cultural Sciences in Costa Riea, the Institute Agropecuanio Nacional! in Guatemala. and to the Canal Zone Experiment Gardens, Summit, C. Z. After field trials at these stations, any numbers which may prove to be consistent high-rotenone producers will be multiplied and distributed to commercial growers. Quantitative chemical tests for rotenone involve considerable time and expense. The analysis of hundreds of root samples, which might be necessary in the search for superior planting stock, could be very costly to the institutions undertaking the investigations. Pagan and White’ have shown that a close and dependable correlation exists between rotenone and tota! ether extractives. They believe that the easiest and quickest method of evaluating iarge numbers of samples with reasonab!e accuracy 1s to determine their total chlo- roform extractives. Samples showing real superiority can be segre- gated in this way and their true value then determined by quantitative tests for rotenone. PYRETHRUM The flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, known as pyreth- rum, constitute one of the most important, as well as one of the oldest, recognized. insecticidal materials of plant origin. Dried, pul- verized flowers, sometimes called ‘insect powder.” and floral ex- tracts have wide application in the control of household, livestock, and crop pests. Their toxic action is due to substances known as pyrethrins, which usually amount to only 0.8 to 1.3 percent of the weight of the dried flowers. Although rotenone, nicotine. 1nd certain morganic poisons, as well as several svnthetics, including DDT, may be substituted for pyreth- rum to some extent, none of them possess as rapid a paralyzing effect or “knock-down’’ which makes its action so spectacular. For use against insects quickly stunned but not killed by pyrethrum, it is blended with other more specifically toxic msecticides. Pyrethrum powder and extracts are nonpoisonous to all but the relatively small number of human beings who are somewhat allergic to it. Among the insects most susceptible to pyrethrum are mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches, bedbugs, body lice, fleas, Mexican bean beetles, 7PaGcan, CaLEB, and WuHitr, Davin G. THE EVALUATION OF ROTENONE IN Derris ELLIPTICA ON THE BASIS OF TOTAL CHLOROFORM EXTRACTIVES. [Unpub- lished manuscript to appear in the Journal of Association of Official Agricultural C} Teel Uhemists.! LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION 2h cabbage worms, celery leaf tiers, potato leafhoppers, beet leafhoppers, . aphids, and tobacco flea beetles. During the recent war enormous quantities of pyrethrum were processed into aerosol sprays used to destroy anopheles mosquitoes in malarial regions where troops were concentrated. Aerosol sprays containing flower extracts, sometimes in combination with DDT, are now used as household insecticides. The effectiveness of pyrethrum sprays is considerably increased by blending with about 5 percent of sesame oil obtained from the seed of Sesamum indicum. For certain purposes, the pyrethrin content of sprays can be reduced as much as 40 percent without impairing their efficiency when sesame oil, which has no inherent insecticidal value, is used as a synergist. The effectiveness of pyrethrum sprays is also increased by the addition of certain synthetic synergists. The most important of these are piperony! cyclohexenone and piperony! butoxide 29). C. cinerariaefolium, native to the Dalmatian coast of Yugoslavia, is a temperate-climate plant which is also successfully cultivated in cer- tain high-altitude regions of the ‘Tropics where the mean average temperature does not exceed 70° F. Although the crop has been grown experimentally in the United States and several north-European countries, it has not achieved commercial importance, because its excessive labor requirements and the comparatively low market value of the flowers make its culture unattractive in countries where wage scales are high. In the normal prewar year of 1938 world production of pyreth- rum reached 16,173 short tons (table 3). In the same year the United States imported 7,268 short tons or the equivalent of nearly 45 percent of the total crop. Since the United States is by far the largest market for pyrethrum flowers, normally purchasing about halt the total world harvest, data (table 4) showing sources of supply from 1933 through 1947 give a rather interesting indication of the way in which production of this crop hes increased, or declined, in various parts of the world during recent years. TasBLeE 3.—Pyrethrum production, by principal producing countries, 1935-4 Country 1935 | 1936 | 1937 | 1938 | 1939: | 19401 | Short | Short | Short | Short | Short | Short | tons | tons | tons tons tons | tons ferian Congo.) |... +. 2 (2) (2) ?) | 24 | 110 LET Se eS ee a* 250 250 250 300 | 300 600 £2 a eee }12, 200 |13, 776 |12, 000 |12, 858 |11, 283 | 5, 167 British East Africa (Kenya)__| 652 | 1,165 | 1,087 | 2,015 | 3,115] 5,472 LEDS hak ee a | 697; 706); 702) 1,000 950} © Lin Se a oe 113, 799 |15, 897 |14, 039 |16, 173 |15, 672 | 11, 349 1 Estimated. 2 Not available. Compiled by Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations from U. 8S. Consular reports and other trade data. 26 MISC. PUBLICATION 650, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE TasLE 4.—United States imports of pyrethrum (crude), 1933-47 Country of origin | 1983 | 1934 | 1935 | 1936 | 1937 il | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1, 000 pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds Bragileeee cue ee 2 eae ee ee [arama ! (eg ee eS a eg i 1 BritishebiasheAtricas 22 =e eee oreo gs ee ai 9 66 | 1,614 1, 423 Crna pe a a Sa ee a ee | meee 2s ee E ta liy2so Satie 1 faqs 4 ee eee oe pene 446 114 66 61 2a JA pane -ee es > Sage eee ye eee epee 9, 066 |10, 094 |15, 204 | 9, 934 | 17, 850 BAUS: peat ate eal aa net y WEN ROARS So | 84 38 5 a ee LIP So UnitedeKomned om =. eases aes = eeeneerere eee ee 42 81 29 22 Mugoslawia 22 ee ee ee eee | 839 299 154 119 519 Dotal 222-2 eee 10, 485 |10, 591 /15,578 |11, 757 | 20, 092 1938 | 19389 | 1940 | 1941 | 1942 | £4,000 | 1, 000 | 1, OOO-| 1,000) 1008 pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds — Bel eiansC OMG Os smc, eee ee 2 17 179 223 | Bratz: <2 \e sue ee eae eee 497 80 78 iT 397° BritishibastyAirica, = ase ae ee eee 2, 864 | 5, 524 |10, 387 |10, 069 8, 830 Italy Ab ouput gl Rept, AC See ee coi a =| 28 (8's) asus | Ga ed oF oye h seme ocala hom ae mane certo MUI ILS tin 10, 896 | 7,486. |°2,,031 |) 7625)\a.taaee | 2) Weep pak ano ea Seek a Sime 2 a a ea ee Rio A ees a WnitedskKined ome ese ee eee 34 at dif Pe a epee eee Wigoslavia® 2655 7"2 5 oe hess eee 218 388 66> Sea eee” _ Wotalucss 2 spas pene ae 114, 537/13, 569 |12, 591. 111, 021 | . 9) 45a 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 pounds pounds pounds | pounds | pounds Belgian Congolee 2a = saree 200 770 | 3,402 | 4, 923 3, 490 Brazile: : oan: ome eee ae eee ee | 593 | 2,203 | 2,253 | 1, 880 312 BritishsWast Atrica ss. ae eae 5, 985 | 7, 685 |12, 597 |13, 520 4, 205 QT a A oe ey Se | eg 23 48 Chile = 5 ae Se Aes te CaN ar eer ne pee eee Re ea 16 13 235 2 Meuadors. 1 =o. da Le es pe see = ea Ses, ene hee arn 1 Guatemala... 2S Aspe Se ee eee = pe pee |) Stil 3 26 |G 5 i Gael Myler ry Aran eats yo RNa nh) at ei bie P eed, Sp 1 1 Winton Of ;So ute hi eArire eee eee ee fetes Ste EAN hee A ite oe 112 |} TPotalie “22 eas ees eee | 6, 778 |10, 658 |18, 271 |20, 476 8, 082 From about 1860 until the First World War, Dalmatia supplied most of the pyrethrum imported by the United States. When this source was cut off by hostilities in 1914, production expanded rapidly in Japan, where cultivation of the crop had commenced in 1881. Between 1931 and 1935, Japan produced from 85 to 97 percent of the pyrethrum imported by the United States. In 1928 pyrethrum was — introduced into Kenya, British East Africa, by Gilbert Walker, a planter, erd by the Kenya Department of Agriculture. In 1932 | i | LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION 27 cemmercial production was begun, and a year later the Kenya Pyrethrum Growers’ Association was formed (1/2). This association, through the official pyrethrum board, which it elects, has standardize d classification, price, and marketing procedures in a way that has proved highly profitable to the Kenya growers, who by 1940 were supplying the United States with over 82 percent of its requirements. During the recent war years United States imports from Kenya tem- porarily decreased somewhat, whereas supplies from two important new producing areas, the Belgian Congo and Brazil, advanced con- siderably. BOTANY Several species of the genus Chrysanthemum have been. reported to possess insecticidal properties, but only three are recognized as worthy of consideration: C. coccinewm (also known as C. roseum), C. marschallii, and C. cinerariaefolium. Of these the last-mentioned is so superior that it has become almost the exclusive source of commer- cial pyrethrum. This plant, and especially its flower, is similar in appearance to the common field daisy, C. leucanthemum, which is of no value as an insecticide. C. cinerariaefolium is a perennial, which when mature may produce floral stems 18 to 30 inches tall. Under cultivation, single plants grow into large mats, ordinarily 8 to 15 inches in diameter at the crown. The leaves may be distinguished from the common daisy in that they are deeply lobed, usually into three primary divisions, and the lobes are more or less deeply cut. The floral stems are long, usually erect, and nearly without leaves. The heads have white rays and yellow disk florets. Over 80 percent of the insecticidal pyrethrins are concentrated in the ovaries of fully opened flowers. Martin and Tattersfield (27) analyzed segments of fully open flowers with at least one-quarter of the disk florets open and no parts missing. They found the following distribution of pyrethrins in the various floral parts: Composition Total of flowers pyrethrins Floral parts: (percent) (percent) ECE LES UIs eg = EAS a, Se a ee ae ne ee 25. 2 0. 18 Receptacles, and involucral scales_ =. =-__...=.-___ =. 20. 4 Pb Disko tloress;.excludimp Ovaries. = 9.45. ee 31. 4 . 48 SD iaVicn eee ee ere Ce A Be = 2330 4. 54 CULTURAL PRACTICES Commercial pyrethrum is propagated both by seed and by rooted crown. divisions commonly called “splits.” Most research workers agree that over a period of years plants grown from seed produce larger total yields than those propagated by splits. Seedlings are generally germinated in specially prepared nurseries and later trans- planted to the field (fig. 15). Usually they do not flower until the second year, but thereafter they may bear. heavily for 3 to 4 years, and, even though yields may then decline, plantations may con- tinue to produce e satisfactorily for a few additional years. In the Tropics plants grown from splits will begin flowering within several weeks after they are set in the field. In the United States a satisfac. tory crop is on obtained until the second year. The yields and economic life of plants grown from splits may be less than those of q 98 MISC. PUBLICATION 650, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE seedlings, but propagation expenses are lower, and the method is often favored for use by the unskilled labor usually available on plantations in tropical countries. . An excellent summary of methods used in the important pyrethrum- growing areas throughout the world has been recorded by H. J. Holman (12). For accounts of techniques developed in the United Ficure 15.—Planting pyrethrum “‘splits”; Matucana, Peru. States the reader may refer to the publications of Sievers,* Gnadinger (6, 7), and Culbertson.® Nurseries In the United States it is the general practice to use seedling stocks erown in outdoor seedbeds or in greenhouses. A properly located outdoor seedbed ought to have a southern exposure, and it should be 8 SrevEeRs, A. F. PpYRETHRUM: ITS CULTURE AND POSSIBILITIES AS A CROP IN THE UNITED STATES. . U. S. Bur. Plant Indus: 7, pp., illus. [n-/d:] (Maumeas eraphed.} * CULBERTSON, R. E. INSTRUCTIONS FOR PYRETHRUM GROWING. Rpt. to e ee 5 R. 7 pp., Belleville, Pa. Sept. 14, 1936. [Mimeographed; filed in LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION ao prepared on a well-drained, neutral, or sightly alkaline sandy loar soil which has been spaded, or plowed, to a depth of at least 6 inches. Well-rotted manure or some commercial fertilizer, such as 2 er 3 pounds of a 4-8-4 mixture per 100 square feet of bed surface, may be incorporated in the soil if its fertility is low. Weeds are likely to be a nuisance in the seedling nurseries; it is desirable therefore to choose a site on newly cleared ground or on freshly plowed sod land where the weed problem may be minimized. Steam sterilization, such as is sometimes practiced in preparing tobacco seedbeds, is a useful method of killing weed seeds in nursery beds where equipment is available. Before planting, the soil should be worked until finely pulverized and the surface made smooth. It is recommended that the beds be boxed in with side boards 12 to 14 inches high and that they be covered with cheap muslin to prevent wind drying of the soil during the germination period. Between 40 and 50 percent of an average lot of heavy, well-cleaned, properly stored seed may be expected to germinate if planted within 3 years after harvest. The seeds are so small and light that nearly 30,000 of them are required to weigh an ounce. Even though half of them may germinate, a grower should not calculate on obtaining more than 3,000 to 5,000 thrifty seedlings worth transplanting to the field for each ounce of seed sown. Between 3 and 5 ounces of seed should be broadeast over 150 square feet of nursery bed for each acre of field planting desired. Some growers prefer to soak their seed in water for several hours previous to sowing in order to hasten germination. After _ broadcasting, the seed should be lightly raked into the soii or else covered to a depth of about an eighth of an inch with mixture of soil and sand; then the ground should be gently tamped or rolled. The seed will germinate within 1 to 3 weeks, and during this period the soil should be kept damp and protected either by a muslin cover or a light mulch of straw or grass. If mulch is used, it should be re- moved as germination begins. Muslin need not be taken off until the plants are 0.5 to 1 inch in height. In temperate climates seed should be sown in the early spring or midsummer, and the plants ought to be ' 3 to 5 inches tall within 6 to 10 weeks. At this stage they may be dug up and set in the field or left in the nurseries over winter. Spring-sown plants should be transplanted by early summer. Those sown in mid- summer are set out early the following spring. In the Tropics, where wet and dry seasons may be pr onounced, seedlings should be sown in time to allow the transplants 3 or 4 months of rainy weather to become well established in the field before a period of prolonged drought is to be expected. Field Planting Pyrethrum grows well on soils ranging from sandy loams to clays; good drainage conditions are more important than a specific texture. Pot-culture work by Martin and Tattersfield (27) indicates that the total yields of flowers and of pyrethrin extracts are determined more by the inherent gualties of individual plants than by soil fertility. Gnadinger, Evans, and Corl (7) made field-plot studies of the effect. of fertilizers or yieids of flowers and pyrethrins and also concluded that there were no significant differences either as between controls and treate? plots or between plete receiving various fertilizers, with the 30 MISC. PUBLICATION 650, U. S.. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE exception of slightly superior yields from plots receiving only muriate of potash. These investigations agree with the observations of growers that pyrethrum apparently yields satisfactorily even on relatively in- . fertile soils, provided that good seed stocks are used and climatic conditions are of the best. Thorough soil preparation, particularly to eliminate grasses and weeds from the field and to provide for rapid drainage, is important to successful culture. Often it is a practice to ridge the land and to set. the transplants on the ridges. Recommended planting distances vary, but as a general rule the rows should be 2% to 3 feet apart, and indi- vidual plants may be set at intervals of 12 to 15 inches in the rows. The planting itself can be done by hand with a dibble or witha mechani- cal planter, such as is used for setting tobacco and cabbage. It is important in successful pyrethrum culture to avoid covering the crowns of the plants with soi!, both when they are being placed in the field and subsequently when the ground around them is cultivated to elimi- nate weeds. Soil spread over the crowns is likely to induce rotting, particularly if it becomes damp. Insofar as climate is concerned, it has been demonstrated that pyrethrum is tolerant both of summer heat and winter frost. However, for maximum flower production, it should enter a winter dormant period, which in the Tropics may not be possible at altitudes of less than 6,500 feet. Field trials in Kenya indicate that near the Equator the minimum may be 7,000 feet. Once established, pyrethrum is relatively drought-resistant, but for maximum yields it must receive adequate rainfall or irrigation water during the period of flower formation. Harvest In the Tropics, even at high altitudes, it is the general habit of pyrethrum to blossom throughout the season of active growth, although there are certain times, particularly following extended rainy periods, when flowering becomes heavier than normal. In temperate climates, where the winter dormancy period is prolonged, most plants iaay come into flower at about the same time early the following summer. In sections of the United States where plantings have been made, the flowering takes place over a period of a few days, during which all but a small proportion of the blossoms are at the desired stage for harvest- ing. This makes mechanical picking feasible, and some methods reasonably successful under certain conditions have been devised. Entire plants may be cut off with mowing machines, or binders, and hauled to stationary mechanical strippers, which remove and separate the flower heads. Research workers (28) of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture have developed a tractor- or horse-drawn field harvester (fig. 16) which has proved efficient in most of the trials made with it. In the major commercial producing areas of the world hand picking by one means or another is the usual practice. Often the flowers are simply plucked singly by women and children (fig. 17). In some cases a scooplike box, fitted with a spike-toothed comb, may be used to strip — flowers in the field. In Japan it is reported that plants are often cut with a sickle and the flowers removed by pulling the stems through a _ comb stripper mounted on the edge of a box. LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION 31 The stage of blossom development at time of picking is important, - particularly with respect to the keeping quality of the flowers during subsequent storage. The pyrethrin content of flowers increases up to the point where the majority of the disk florets open. After pollina- tion, the pyrethrin content does not diminish, but the development of the ovaries causes a considerable increase in the weight of the floral head without a comparable increase in pyrethrins so that insecticidal quality gradually declines. More important than the small differences in pyrethrin content at various stages of floral development is the degree of its stability under storage conditions. Gnadinger et al. (7) have shown that immature and nearly mature flowers lose little pyrethrin during the first 60 days of storage but that mature flowers may lose as much as 13 percent. Figure 16.—Mechanical pyrethrum picker developed by U. 8. Department of Agriculture. After harvesting, the flowers should be thoroughly dried either in the sun, in ventilated shelters, or in heated driers before they are baled for storage and shipment. A common belief is that pressure baling is necessary to prevent loss of pyrethrins in storage, but it has been shown that flowers packed under pressure of 16,000 pounds per square inch for a period of 263 days lost only slightly less pyrethrins than a comparable lot of loosely baled flowers (7). PRODUCTION IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE Brazil Pyrethrin production in the Western Hemisphere has increased significantly in the past 5 years, with Brazil accounting for almost the entire amount. In 1946 total United States imports from all world sources reached 20,476,000 pounds, which was more than for any pre- a2 MISC. PUBLICATION 650, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE vious year. Brazil supplied slightly more than 9 percent of these imports. Indications are that the crop has now achieved real eco- nomic importance in sections of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, where it is reported that Sr. Rene Coulon first planted it at Caxias near Porto Alegre in 1890. Pyrethrum was not grown commercially until local manufacturers of insect sprays created an active market for it in 1922. Cultivation, which is now centered around the municipalities of Taquara, San Antonio, Caxias, Cangusst, Sao Lourenco, and Piratin{, is carried on chiefly by subsistence farmers who devote portions of their small landholdings to it as a supplementary cash crop. All the work involved is accomplished by hand or with hand tools; women and children do most of the picking. In 1942, when adult male labor received from 5 to 8 cruzeiros (25 to 40 cents) a day, dry pyrethrum flowers brought the growers 1 cruzeiro per kilo (about 2.25 cents a pound). This price was considered profitable by the farmers, who sold their small harvests to local country stores for cash or for trade goods advanced by the shopkeepers. Buyers, representing dealers in Pérto Alegre and Pelotas, bought up these supplies from the country stores for processing in Brazil and for shipment abroad. Export values of pyrethrum containing 0.6 to 1.5 percent total pyrethrins averaged 7.60 cruzeiros per kilo (about 16 cents per pound) in 1943. In Rio Grande do Sul, it is said, plants produce economically for from 6 to 10 years. Yields average ‘about 400 kilos per hectare annu- ally. Flowermg begins in October and continues until May, but yields are particularly heavy during the months of November, Decem- ber, and January. A second flush of blooms occurs during the latter part of March and early April. Some pyrethrum is also grown around Presidente Wenceslau in Sao Paulo. Argentina Pyrethrum culture in Argentina is gradually increasing, but up to 1943 less than 500 acres were estimated to have been in production. Chief growing centers are in irrigated sections of the Provinces of Mendoza and San Juan and to a lesser extent in Catamarca and Salta. Yields vary between 600 and 1,200 pounds per acre, with 1,000 pounds being approximately the average on irrigated land. Pyrethrin content of the best grade flowers is said to be 1.2 to 1.25 percent. Laborers make between three and four hand pickings during the bloom season, although most of the crop is normally harvested in November. Since Ar oentina does not produce sufficient pyrethrum for its own insecticide manufacturers, acreages may be expected to increase at least until domestic requirements are satisfied. Chile Pyrethrum was first introduced into Chile by Y ugoslav immigrants from the Dalmatian coast. Although their experimental plantings 10 WinuiaAMs, U. H. THE PYRETHRUM INDUSTRY OF BRAZIL. U.S. Cons. Rpt. No. 239, 15 pp. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. May 1943. [Hectographed.] 11 Stoops, Don. PYRETHRUM PRODUCTION IN ARGENTINA. U.S. Cons. Rpt. No. 30, 7 pp. Buenos Aires, Argentina. July 1943. [Hectographed.] 2 WILSON, JAMES PARKER. CHILEAN PYRETHRUM PRODUCTION. U.S. Cons. Rpt. No. 290. 5 pp., illus. Santiago, Chile. Aug. 1943. [Hectographed.] = Ss, aft LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION 33 ew well, production never reached a commercial scale. It was not until 1939 that commercial production became a reality, when a Chilean, Sr. Luis Fontecilla, began to increase the acreage of pyrethrum on his medicinal-plant farm, Fundo Palermo, near the village of San Bernardo on the outskirts of Santiago. Even in 19438, the only grower was the firm Drogas Botanicas, S. A., organized by Sr. Fontecilla. In 1942 this firm harvested about 35,000 kilos from 40 hectares. Plants are propagated both with seeds and with splits. Principal harvest seasons are during October, March, and April, and plantings are at an altitude of about 3,500 feet. Locally the practice has been to grind an insecticidal powder from mixed flowers and floral stems. Peru Private landowners in Peru introduced pyrethrum in 1928. Begin- ning in 1933, extensive trials with pyrethrum were made by Peruvian agricultural experiment stations. Ten years later approximately 100 hectares were in commercial production at elevations ranging from 3,000 to 9,000 feet, principally in the Huancayo Valley of Junin 4 =. , ee p< . “\ fey : = : 9% 1. he Bae Ark ate! See ES Figure 17.—Harvesting pyrethrum flowers at Matucana, Peru. Province. Most of the present plantings are on the small landholdings of subsistence-farming Indians who have chosen the crop as a means of earning a little cash. Plants are propagated both by seed and by splits. The life of the average planting is estimated at 6 years, and yields are estimated at approximately 500 kilos per hectare after the first season. At higher altitudes the pyrethrin content is said to be usually more than 1.2 percent. ® 18 Martin, WILLIAM. PYRETHRUM SITUATION IN PERU. 3 pp. [Hectographed report, filed in T. C. B., O. F. A. R., sent in by Benj. J. Birdsall, Amer. Embassy, Lima, Peru, April 13, 1943.] 34 MISC. PUBLICATION 650, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Ecuador Statements are made that pyrethrum was not grown in Ecuador prior to 1940.% At that time, samples of seed were secured and. planted on the grounds of the agricultural experiment stations at Alausi and Ambato at elevations of 2,333 and 2,555 meters, respec- tively. The plants grew satisfactorily, and flowers from Alausf analyzed 1.1 percent total pyrethrins. In 1943, about 60 acres were planted for commercial production in response to encouragement and assistance by the Estacién Experimental Agricola del Ecuador. Additional experimental plantings were established at Patate, Ibarra, Pelileo, Pillaro, Quito, Calacali, Aloag, Riobamba, Otavalo, Cayambe, Latacunga, Salcedo, Chambo, and Tunchi. Central America Pyrethrum has been grown experimentally in Costa Rica, El Sal- vador, and Guatemala, but not until 1944 was an effort made to cultivate the crop on a commercial! scale. In that year Stephen White of the United States Board of Economic Warfare distributed seedlings to 10 plantation ewners in Guatemala. By December 1945, about 105 acres were ty. production. Yield data taken on 19 acres of four farms during the first year of production indicated an average of 389 pounds per acre. The first commercial shipments made in 1945 assayed 0.83 to 0.89 percent pyrethrins after 9 months of storage. but analysis of flowers taken from all pyrethrum fields in Guatemala showed a range in total pyrethrin content of 0.79 to 2.13 percent and an average of 1.22 percent. Altitudes at which the crop is grown vary from 5,000 feet near Antigua to 8,500 feet near Palestina. Other pyrethrum- producing farms are located near Chicacao, at 7,200 feet; Tecpdin, at 7,500 feet; Fraijanes at 6,000 feet; Quezal- tenango at 8,009 feet; and Amatitlan, at 5,500 feet. At the present time the Instituto Agropecuario Nacional is engaged in making selec- tions of superior strains for Guatemala. Most Guatemalan pyrethrum is sun- or stove-dried, but one grower at Tecpaén began in 1946 to use infrared lamps after preliminary sun drying. Haiti Haiti has become the most recent exporter of pyrethrum flowers in the Western Hemisphere. With the assistance of the United States Foreign Economic Administration, trial plantings were begun in 1942 at Haitian agricultural experiment stations at Savanne Zombie and Oriani at altitudes of 4,500 and 5,000 feet. In 1945, United States private imterests in pooper ation with the Haitian-American Develop- ment Corp. established a trial planting of special Tennessee varieties at Gros Cheval, 5,025 feet in altitude. Experimental plantings at Oriani produced flowers assaying 1.2 percent pyrethrin content. In 1945, commercial planting was begun, and a year later the first exports, totaling 1,268 pounds, were made to the United States. 14 CULBERTSON, R. E. PYRETHRUMIN ECUADOR. Rpt. to O. F. A. R., 9 pp., illus. In. p.| Jan. 7, 1944. [Hectographed; filed in T. C. B., O. F. A. R.! © WHITE, STEPHEN S. PYRETHRUM PRODUCTION IN GUATEMALA. Rpt. to U.S 35 | Com. Co. 24 pp., illus. In. v.] [n. d.] [Hectographed; filed in T. C. B., O. F. A. R.j | LONCHOCARPUS, DERRIS, AND PYRETHRUM CULTIVATION 35 LITERATURE CITED Buntinc, B., and Mitsum, J. N. 1930. AGRICULTURE AT CAMERON’S HIGHLANDS. Malayan Agr. Jour. 28: 5-19. illus. Cooper, WILLIAM C. 1944. 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(25) 1943. DERRIS CULTURE IN PUERTO RICO. Puerto Rico (Mayagiiez) Expt. Sta. Cir 242517 pps ilius: (26) | 1945. INSECTICIDAL-CROP INVESTIGATIONS; PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBU- TION. Fed. Expt. Sta. (Puerto Rico) Rpt. 1944: 4-5. (27) and Joneses, M. A. 1942. PHYSIOLOGY AND AGRONOMY OF ROTENONE CROPS. Puerto Rico Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. 1941: 15-17. (28) Srevers, A. F.,. Lowman, M.S., and Hurst, W. M. 1941. HARVESTING PYRETHRUM. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. No. 581, 28 pp. illus. (29) Wacus, Herman. 1947. SYNERGISTIC INSECTICIDES. Science, 105: 530-531, illus. (80) Wiuue, J. E., Ocamro, J. ALcipES, WEBERBAUER, A., and SCHOFIELD, D. 1939. EL CUBE (LONCHOCARPUS NICOU) Y OTRAS BARBASCO (S) EN EL PERU. | Ed. 2, corr. No. 11, 1937. Bol. Estad. Expt: Agr., la Molimag No. 167129 pp. iis: ima: @. $. GOVERNMENT PRINT:NG OFFICE: 1948